The head of Corning Glass Works research at the time, William Armistead

The head of Corning Glass Works research at the time, William Armistead, was skeptical. Nevertheless, he approved funding for Robert Maurer, a physicist, as well as colleagues Pete Schultz, a senior chemist, and Donald Keck, an engineer and physicist, to work on the problem.

 And they did, without a customer in sight. Maurer and his team knew that the glass would have to have a clear core surrounded by a skin—called cladding, and also made of glass—so that the cladding could reflect laser light back into the core and keep it traveling along its path.

For four years, he and his team at Corning kept experimenting with different chemical compositions of the core to create the greatest possible clarity. Failure followed failure.
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One Friday evening in August 1970, Donald Keck was alone in the Corning R&D lab, testing one last piece of fiber before the weekend. In their book The Silent War, Ira Magaziner and Mark Patinkin tell the story of Keck bending over his microscope and lining up the laser, watching as the narrow beam of light got closer and closer to the core.

 Suddenly, Keck was hit right in the eye by a bright beam of light. The fiber had transmitted light without losing more than a tiny amount of the beam’s strength. “Eureka,” Keck wrote in the lab notebook that day. It would be 10 more years before Corning found a customer for its optical fiber.

Fiber optic cables for wide ranging industrial applications

LEONI offers you cables with fiber-optic conductors made of glass (single and multi-mode), plastic optical fibers (POF), plastic cladded fibers (PCF) and large-core fibers (silica/silica). All fiber types are also available in a radiation resistant version.

We manufacture varying cable designs ranging from central-tube cables to breakout-cables with all core types, as well as with specific inner and outer jacket materials, customised according to your needs.
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Industry cable systems for:
Automation and robotics (drag chains, Industrial Ethernet, bus systems, laser technology)
Sensor technology and analytics (measuring and control cabling)
Advantages at a glance:
EMC safety (electromagnetic fields and other interference fields have no impact)
high transmission band width
max. transmission distance
small dimensions and low weight
You will find further information on hybrid cables, which combine fiber-optic elements with copper-based transmission, at

This application helps to prevent an outage

This application helps to prevent an outage for a large number of customers during a period of time and this in turn gives the cable companies a better customer relationship. It also helps to increase the company's revenue by giving them a return path in which they can use for telephone connections and Internet.

Because of the growth in demand for communication signal transmission, cable television is in the midst of advancing their existing systems with fiber optic technology.
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Benefits to End Cable Users

With fiber optic technology, cable companies can offer their customers a much better quality picture while at the same time reduce their operating costs because fiber optics cost much less to maintain.

Libraries: Particularly during economic downturns

libraries become a haven for the public, providing computers and internet access, books and movies for inexpensive entertainment, and assistance with online job searching. Regardless of the economic climate, libraries are automated to the point that users can download digital media from home, reserve and renew books online, and access a myriad of web-based enrichment and educational tools.

Economic Growth & Quality Jobs: Data indicates that hi-speed or broadband internet will improve the economic climate. Not surprisingly, according to some studies, the greatest positive economic impact is likely to be realized in rural underserved communities.

 This assertion is quite logical when one considers population density, income and education demographics, and the current economy in rural America.  Rural America, simply put, has the most room for economic growth.

Municipal Broadband

Download Our Complimentary Municipal Broadband Primer

The importance of broadband can no longer be denied, yet almost fifty percent of people living in rural America do not have adequate Internet service. To put that in perspective, 95% of the country is considered “rural America”.

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Across the country, municipalities are working on building reliable broadband in their area so their communities can be competitive in the modern economy. Whether they are looking to the FCC for help or turning to their local ISPs for partnerships, municipalities are still taking on an extremely costly and complicated project. With thousands, if not millions of dollars being invested, municipalities need to consider the longevity of the Internet medium they choose.

Close up of copper cables

Close up of copper cables
Copper Cables

DSL Cons
Interference: Copper wires can do serious damage if not properly installed and maintained. They can release electromagnetic currents that interfere with wires and severely damage a network. Fiber cables will neither emit electromagnetic waves nor be damaged by them. They are made from plastic and/or glass, therefore are unaffected by the harmful waves.

Copper cables also conduct electricity, so they pose a fire risk if not properly installed and maintained. This fact also means they are more susceptible to lightning and can be very dangerous if they go down during a storm.
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Attenuation: Attenuation, means the weakening or loss of a signal. Given distance signals sent over copper wires degrade much faster than fiber. After 320 ft. of cable, fiber loses only three percent of its signal, whereas DSL/Cable lose 94% at the same distance.

Symmetrical Speeds: Everyone uses the Internet in one of two ways, downloading and/or uploading. When you watch something on Netflix, you are downloading. When you upload a video to YouTube, you are uploading. Downloading and uploading are usually represented as different speeds.

A GOOD SOLUTION FOR BIG CITIES

A GOOD SOLUTION FOR BIG CITIES
This approach appears to have great potential for use in large, earthquake-threatened cities such as San Francisco, Los Angeles, Tokyo, and Mexico City, where thousands of miles of optical cables are buried beneath the surface.

“What’s great about using fiber for this is that cities already have it as part of their infrastructure, so all we have to do is tap into it,” Beroza says.

Many of these urban centers are built atop soft sediments that amplify and extend earthquake shaking. The near-surface geology can vary considerably from neighborhood to neighborhood, highlighting the need for detailed, site-specific information.

Yet getting that kind of information can be a challenge with traditional techniques, which involve the deployment of large seismometer arrays—thousands of such instruments in the Los Angeles area, for example.
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“In urban areas, it is very difficult to find a place to install seismic stations because asphalt is everywhere,” Spica says. “In addition, many of these lands are private and not accessible, and you cannot always leave a seismic station standing alone because of the risk of theft.

“Fiber optics could someday mark the end of such large scale and expensive experiments. The cables are buried under the asphalt and crisscross the entire city, with none of the disadvantages of surface seismic stations.”

Gore sees opportunity to grow fiber optic cable business in aviation

Though it might not garner many headlines, the “copper versus fiber optics” debate is raging within aviation, as industry stakeholders consider the best conduit for quickly transmitting an ever-increasing amount of data to 4K cockpit screens, in-seat IFE, and aircraft health monitoring systems.

With a core that carries light to transmit data, fiber optic cables have a much larger bandwidth than copper wires, and are able to deliver high data rates over long distance. That’s been a draw for some OEMs and integrators. To wit, when Airbus was developing the A350 XWB, your author learned that a 1 Gbps fiber optic cable would directly connect Panasonic Avionics’ IFE head-end server to each seat column in the XWB cabin. At the time, Airbus noted in its catalogue that the cable would be “simple and lightweight with no EMI challenges”, offered a “redundant option” insofar as fiber could connect both ends of each seat column, and that it would offer high speeds and “support for HD video”. So, a certain amount of fiber has been on the proverbial menu for a while.

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Another plus is that fiber optic cables are much lighter than copper. But repairing them on in-service aircraft can be cumbersome and costly, to say the very least.

“What we have been hearing in the market is that the number one concern about fiber is if you break a line or if there is any sort of repairability issues. And on the aircraft that can be extremely painful and sometimes not even possible. So, if it’s in a certain area of the aircraft you basically have to pull the entire line out and, you know, reinstall it. Imagine trying to do that with an already installed harness,” says Jeremy Moore, product manager, aerospace fiber optics at W. L. Gore & Associates, which is working to grow its fiber content on aircraft. Little wonder, then, why Airbus was touting redundant cables all those years ago.

Fiber Optic Cable Types

Fiber Optic Cable Types
Typically customers will ask for either multimode or single mode fiber cable. They may be able to give you some specifics but not always. They may rely on you to decide the exact type of fiber they need. Every now and then you may have a more technical customer that asks for Fiber cable but gives you a specific type like OM3 fiber. Well what does that mean? What is OM3 or OM4 Fiber?

This section will review the more technical naming conventions and specifications for both Multimode and Single Mode Fiber.

Multimode Fibers – OM1, OM2, OM3, OM4 and OM5
Multimode fibers are identified by the OM (optical mode) designation and their specifications are outlined by the ISO/IEC 11801 standard. Multimode cable disperses the light into multiple paths as it travels down the core. This allows for higher bandwidth over short to medium distances. However, on longer cable runs, multiple paths of light can cause distortion at the receiving end, resulting in an unclear and incomplete data transmission. For this reason, Multimode is generally only used for short distance applications like data centers.
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Types of Multimode Fiber Cable and Specifications
OM1
Jacket Color – Orange
Core Size - 62.5um
Data Rate – 1Gb @ 850nm wavelength
Distance – Up to 300 meters
Application – Short-haul networks, Local Area Networks(LANs) & private networks

The simplest type of optical fiber is called single-mode.

The simplest type of optical fiber is called single-mode. It has a very thin core about 5-10 microns (millionths of a meter) in diameter. In a single-mode fiber, all signals travel straight down the middle without bouncing off the edges (yellow line in diagram). Cable TV, Internet, and telephone signals are generally carried by single-mode fibers, wrapped together into a huge bundle. Cables like this can send information over 100 km (60 miles).

Another type of fiber-optic cable is called multi-mode. Each optical fiber in a multi-mode cable is about 10 times bigger than one in a single-mode cable. This means light beams can travel through the core by following a variety of different paths (yellow, orange, blue, and cyan lines)—in other words, in multiple different modes. Multi-mode cables can send information only over relatively short distances and are used (among other things) to link computer networks together.

Even thicker fibers are used in a medical tool called a gastroscope (a type of endoscope), which doctors poke down someone's throat for detecting illnesses inside their stomach. A gastroscope is a thick fiber-optic cable consisting of many optical fibers.
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At the top end of a gastroscope, there is an eyepiece and a lamp. The lamp shines its light down one part of the cable into the patient's stomach. When the light reaches the stomach, it reflects off the stomach walls into a lens at the bottom of the cable.

Then it travels back up another part of the cable into the doctor's eyepiece. Other types of endoscopes work the same way and can be used to inspect different parts of the body. There is also an industrial version of the tool, called a fiberscope, which can be used to examine things like inaccessible pieces of machinery in airplane engines.

FTTH uses only a very small portion of the bandwidth

FTTH uses only a very small portion of the bandwidth that long-haul fibres use (Think e.g. of bundling in parallel all the FFTH fibers in Australia being a much, much thicker cable that what is laid into the ocean or between territories). You will almost never use the actual optical bandwidth of FFTH fibers, since you couldn't afford the electronics and laser to modulate and demodulate.

Finally, a human being (optical resolution of the eye being 1 arc second) can probably not process much more information than about 4 HD channels would pack (sound is trivial in information density compared to video, so is touch, smell),
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so there appears to be not much need for an individual to be connected at download speeds that substantially exceed the limit of about 4 HD channels incoming and 4 HD channels outgoing. Multiply this by the size of a family.

FFTH optical bandwidth likely already exceeds our biological capacity to process, only the price of the electronic side might remain a practical limit for a few years.

In order for various manufacturers

Governing standards
In order for various manufacturers to be able to develop components that function compatibly in fiber optic communication systems, a number of standards have been developed. The International Telecommunications Union publishes several standards related to the characteristics and performance of fibers themselves, including

ITU-T G.651, "Characteristics of a 50/125 μm multimode graded index optical fibre cable"
ITU-T G.652, "Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre cable"
Other standards specify performance criteria for fiber, transmitters, and receivers to be used together in conforming systems. Some of these standards are:
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100 Gigabit Ethernet
10 Gigabit Ethernet
Fibre Channel
Gigabit Ethernet
HIPPI
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
Synchronous Optical Networking
Optical Transport Network (OTN)

Main article: Optical amplifier

The transmission distance of a fiber-optic communication system has traditionally been limited by fiber attenuation and by fiber distortion. By using opto-electronic repeaters, these problems have been eliminated.

These repeaters convert the signal into an electrical signal, and then use a transmitter to send the signal again at a higher intensity than was received, thus counteracting the loss incurred in the previous segment. Because of the high complexity with modern wavelength-division multiplexed signals. including the fact that they had to be installed about once every 20 km (12 mi), the cost of these repeaters is very high.
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An alternative approach is to use optical amplifiers which amplify the optical signal directly without having to convert the signal to the electrical domain. One common type of optical amplifier is called an Erbium-doped fiber amplifier, or EDFA.

These are made by doping a length of fiber with the rare-earth mineral erbium and pumping it with light from a laser with a shorter wavelength than the communications signal (typically 980 nm). EDFAs provide gain in the ITU C band at 1550 nm, which is near the loss minimum for optical fiber.

Optical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass

Optical fiber was successfully developed in 1970 by Corning Glass Works, with attenuation low enough for communication purposes (about 20 dB/km) and at the same time GaAs semiconductor lasers were developed that were compact and therefore suitable for transmitting light through fiber optic cables for long distances.

In 1973, Optelecom, Inc., co-founded by the inventor of the laser, Gordon Gould, received a contract from ARPA for the one of the first optical communication systems. Developed for Army Missile Command in Huntsville, Alabama, the system was intended to allow a short-range missile to be flown remotely from the ground by means of a five kilometer long optical fiber that unspooled from the missile as it flew.[10]

After a period of research starting from 1975, the first commercial fiber-optic communications system was developed which operated at a wavelength around 0.8 μm and used GaAs semiconductor lasers. This first-generation system operated at a bit rate of 45 Mbit/s with repeater spacing of up to 10 km. Soon on 22 April 1977, General Telephone and Electronics sent the first live telephone traffic through fiber optics at a 6 Mbit/s throughput in Long Beach, California.
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In October 1973, Corning Glass signed a development contract with CSELT and Pirelli aimed to test fiber optics in an urban environment: in September 1977, the second cable in this test series, named COS-2, was experimentally deployed in two lines (9 km) in Turin, for the first time in a big city, at a speed of 140 Mbit/s.[11]

The second generation of fiber-optic communication was developed for commercial use in the early 1980s, operated at 1.3 μm and used InGaAsP semiconductor lasers. These early systems were initially limited by multi mode fiber dispersion, and in 1981 the single-mode fiber was revealed to greatly improve system performance, however practical connectors capable of working with single mode fiber proved difficult to develop. Canadian service provider SaskTel had completed construction of what was then the world's longest commercial fiber optic network, which covered 3,268 km (2,031 mi) and linked 52 communities.[12] By 1987, these systems were operating at bit rates of up to 1.7 Gb/s with repeater spacing up to 50 km (31 mi).

Flexible stainless steel shield will protect fibers from everyday wear.

Reflective type: FU-67G Thrubeam
type: FU-77G

Resistant to winding or shock. More flexible than conventional spiral tubes with a minimum curvature radius of 10 mm

ToughFlex Super
Cables can be drastically bent with almost no optical attenuation.

Reflective type: FU-67V Thrubeam
type: FU-77V
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ToughFlex
Easy to handle with a minimum curvature radius of 2 mm and minimal optical attenuation.

Reflective type: FU-67
Thrubeam type: FU-77

The ToughFlex and Super ToughFlex fiber core is used for most Keyence fiber units.

Optical Sources Source  optics  berfungsi  sebagAI  transmitterLight  a membring information.  Sourcethe must  memeet the  requirements  of  adalah (Singer, 1991, Thomas, 1995): • The light that is produced must      centurymedium monochromatis. • Has high power output yes with intensity high  so that it  can  overcome the dampingof along the fiber channel.

 Easily modulated by sin andal information. • Has a small dimension da     n  mudah connected by fiber.  Source  optics  which  umuI'm  used  toopti fiber communication systemk  is LED ( lightemitting  diode)  dan  LD  (laser  diode).  Kboth of them is  a  semi arrangementconductor connection P-N when given a forward bias will radiate energy optics in the form of photons. Bigenergy photon emitted is (Zanger, 1991):  pE  h f= ⋅   

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 (1) h is the  Planck constant  (6.626 x  10-34  J-s) and  f  is the  frequency of the  gelombang  cahaanda  yangemitted. With a demicn  wavelengthemitted (Zanger, 1991):  gh cEλ⋅=    (2) Eg  is  energyband gap (ctake the field) and c is light speedanda (3 x 108 m/s).  The intensity of the light produced by the LED is moreh low dibaLED with  LD, up to  LEDgenerally only usedn for fiber optic systems  pende distancek  like  pada  buildings  andplane  flying. Whereas  LD  with intensityhigh and coherentlift as appropriate on the wireless communication systemk far away (Thomas, 1995). LED  Burrus  is  one of  a  kind  LEDheterojunction  dengan beet surface. 

Advantages of Fiber Optic Cables

The following are some of the advantages of Optical Fiber Cables:

• Bandwidth - Fiber optic communication systems can be used to transmit more information than copper cables and are very suitable for use with digital communications. Fiber can carry large amounts of data because of the greater bandwidth capacity. Data can be transmitted at very high speeds usually 1.6 TB / sec in the field. Because of this fact, the next generation internet will be based on light or known as LiFi (Light Fidelity).
• Very Low Power Loss - Optical fiber offers very low power loss. Signals can be transmitted to longer distances. This Optical Fiber Cable only loses low signal around 0.3dB / Km. Therefore, optical repeaters or repeaters are not needed for relatively long distances. When compared to copper cables, fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference and do not produce interference when operating.
• Security - Optical Fiber has high quality in confidentiality and communication performance. Optical fiber is difficult to tap. This is because Optical Fiber or Optical Fiber does not emit electromagnetic energy. Fiber is basically the safest media available for carrying sensitive data.
• Flexibility - Because fiber optic cables are much lighter and smaller in diameter than copper cables, they also occupy less space with cables with the same information capacity and can be more easily produced and installed.
• Material Costs - Fiber optic cables are cheaper than copper cables, which can drastically reduce the cost of installing new cables or when maintaining old cables.

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Weaknesses of Optical Fiber Cables

Despite its many advantages, Fiber optics also has weaknesses that need to be considered in its use. Following below are the weaknesses of this fiber optic cable.

• Cannot be Folded within a small radius  - Optical Fiber can be easily broken or lost transmission if wrapped around a small radius (a few centimeters). But this is usually overcome by wrapping the optical fiber in a plastic jacket or jacket, making it difficult to bend the fiber cable into a small radius.
• Highly Vulnerable to Damage - Fiber or optical fiber requires more protection around the cable compared to copper. Fiber optic cable size is very small and dense cable so it is very susceptible to being cut or damaged during installation or construction activities. So, when choosing a fiber optic cable as a transmission media, special activities are needed to overcome the recovery and backup.
• High Installation Costs - Fiber is more expensive to install and must be installed by skilled specialists. Fiber optics is basically not as strong as copper wires so installation must be very careful and thorough. In addition, special test equipment for optical fiber installation is needed.

Definition, Types and Working Principles of Optical Fiber

What is Optical Fiber?
Optical fiber, optical fiber or optical cable is a transmission channel made of glass or plastic that is used to transmit data through the media in the form of light from one place to another with very fast time and very large data (Saydam, 1997).

Definition, Types and Working Principles of Optical Fiber

Optical fiber was developed in the late 1960s made of dielectric material shaped like glass. It is inside this fiber that the light energy generated by the light source is channeled so that it can be received at the end of the receiver.

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The difference between optical communication systems and ordinary communication systems lies in the process of sending the signal. In an ordinary communication system the information signal is converted into an electrical / electrical signal, then passed through a copper cable. After arriving at the destination the signal is then converted back into the same information as it was sent. Whereas in optical communication systems, information is converted into electrical signals and then converted again into optics / light. The signal is then passed through optical fiber, after arriving at the receiver, the light is converted back into an electrical signal and finally translated into information.
Advantages of Optical Fiber
The advantages of optical fiber compared to other transmission media are as follows (Widodo, 1995):
Has a very wide bandwidth. In a digital system it can reach the gigahertz order, so as to be able to carry enormous information.
Very small and inexpensive size, making it easy to handle and install.
Light signals are not affected by electrical noise or magnetic fields.
Gestures in the fiber cable are guaranteed safety.
Because there is no electric power in the fiber, there will be no explosion or spark. In addition, the fiber is resistant to toxic gases, chemicals, and water, making it suitable for planting underground.
The shrinkage is very low, thereby reducing the number of connections and the number of repeaters (repeaters). Which in turn will reduce costs

Fiber: Altice divests part of its infrastructure activity in Portugal

Technology: Altice Europe sold a 49.99% minority stake in its infrastructure branch Altice Portugal FTTH. This 2.6 billion euro transaction results in the creation of the largest fiber wholesaler in Portugal.
The head holding company of Altice France, which oversees SFR, announced on Friday that it had finalized, through its Portuguese subsidiary MEO, an agreement with the Morgan Stanley Infrastructure Partners fund with a view to creating a real fiber wholesaler in Portugal. The operation had been in the pipeline since the start of the year , Altice Europe having also surveyed the American fund KKR for the takeover of this asset.

In detail, MEO has undertaken to sell a 49.99% minority stake in the Altice Portugal FTTH infrastructure branch , for an operation payable in four installments, amounting to 2.3 billion euros, which values ​​the Portuguese infrastructure branch of Altice at 4.63 billion euros.

This will allow Altice Europe to successively garner 1.565 billion euros in 2020, then 375 million in December 2021 and 375 million in December in 2026, these sums being however subject to "certain performance criteria". The transaction is expected to be completed in the first half of 2020.
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For Patrick Drahi's holding company, this is a great first. "For the first time in Europe, a historic telecommunications operator separates its optical fiber into a specialized wholesale vehicle", said the management of the holding company, about this operation, which should lead to the creation of the most large FTTH wholesaler in Portugal with around 4 million households served at the end of 2019.

Optical power measurement

Optical power measurement
A power measurement is a test of the signal strength from the transmitter after the system is activated. An optical photometer displays the optical power received on its photodiode and can be directly connected to the output of the optical transmitter or to where the optical receiver would be located on a fiber cable. The unit of measurement for optical power is dBm, with “m” representing 1 milliwatt and “dB” referring to decibels.

Test the optical fiber to measure optical losses
To measure the optical losses of a fiber, you must connect to a source with a continuous power level using a starter coil to perform the reference. A photometer at the opposite end of the circuit measures the optical source with and without the fiber to be tested in order to quantify the loss in dB of the fiber itself.
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Other methods of optical loss testing use a starter coil and an end coil connected to the photometer. This type of method is the standard for optical loss testing on a wired installation and includes loss measurements at both ends of the cable under test. This is why, it is important to check that all the optical connectors are of impeccable cleanliness.